LISTENING FACTS
Listening Facts compiled by Laura Janusik, Ph.D., Rockhurst University
with assistance from Lynn Fullenkamp and Lauren Partese.
Listening Fact Categories
Time Spent Listening and Communicating Listening and Supportive Communication
Listening and Communication Competence Listening Barriers
Listening and Meaning Listening Across the Lifespan
Listening and Memory Listening and Business
Listening and Speech Rates Listening and Education
Listening and Hearing Listening and Healthcare
TIME SPENT LISTENING AND COMMUNICATING
In Germany, Students in primary school are expected to listen for about 2/3 of classroom time (Imhof & Weinhard, 2004).
In the U.S., the following studies have been conducted:
Study |
Population |
Reading |
Writing |
Speaking |
Listening |
|
Rankin, 1930 |
Varied |
15% |
11% |
32% |
42% |
|
Brieter, 1971 |
Homemakers |
10% |
7% |
35% |
48% |
|
Weinrauch and Swanda, 1975 |
Business Personnel |
19% |
23% |
26% |
33% |
|
Werner, 1975 |
High school & college students, employees & homemakers |
13% |
8% |
23% |
55% |
|
Barker et. al, 1980* |
U.S. College Students |
17% |
14% |
16% |
53% |
|
Bohlken, 1999 |
U.S. College Students |
13% |
12% |
22% |
53% |
|
Davis, 2000* |
Australian College Students |
12.3% |
9.8% |
30.6% |
34.1% |
|
U.S. Department of Labor, 1991 |
Government Managers |
13.3% |
8.4% |
23% |
55% |
|
Janusik & Wolvin, 2006 |
U.S. College Students |
6% |
8% |
20% |
24% |
Average Daily Hours
Dedicated to Communication Activities by Context
|
Janusik & Wolvin, 2006 N = 206 College Students |
School Hours % |
Friends Hours % |
Work Hours % |
Family Hours % |
||||
|
Writing |
1.24 |
16 |
.24 |
2 |
.07 |
10 |
.02 |
3 |
|
Reading |
.91 |
11 |
.26 |
2 |
.04 |
6 |
.02 |
3 |
|
Speaking |
.95 |
12 |
2.54 |
23 |
2.00 |
28 |
1.6 |
25 |
|
Listening |
2.22 |
28 |
2.29 |
21 |
2.01 |
28 |
1.4 |
23 |
|
Television |
.51 |
6 |
1.20 |
11 |
.0 9 |
1 |
1.2 |
16 |
|
Radio |
.22 |
3 |
.44 |
4 |
.03 |
5 |
.02 |
3 |
|
CDs/Tapes |
.36 |
5 |
.74 |
7 |
.03 |
4 |
.03 |
5 |
|
Phone |
.33 |
4 |
1.03 |
9 |
.06 |
9 |
.07 |
11 |
|
|
.41 |
5 |
.71 |
6 |
.03 |
4 |
.03 |
4 |
|
Internet |
.78 |
10 |
1.67 |
15 |
.04 |
6 |
.04 |
5 |
Total Daily Average Hours Dedicated to Communication Activities
|
Janusik & Wolvin, 2006 N = 206 College Students |
Total Total Hours % |
|
|
Writing |
1.82 |
8 |
|
Reading |
1.40 |
6 |
|
Speaking |
4.83 |
20 |
|
Listening* |
5.80 |
24 |
|
Television* |
2.12 |
9 |
|
Radio* |
.86 |
4 |
|
CDs/Tapes* |
1.32 |
5 |
|
Phone* |
1.87 |
8 |
|
|
1.33 |
6 |
|
Internet |
2.73 |
11 |
|
*Total Listening Related Activities |
11.97 |
50 |
* = Total Listening Related Activities combines listening, television, radio, CDÕs/Tapes, and Telephone
LISTENING COMPETENCE AND
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Confident individuals listen to message content better than individuals who lack confidence (Clark, 1989).
People with less confidence in themselves tend to be better listeners for the emotional meaning of the spoken message (Clark, 1989).
Being more willing to communicate and less apprehensive about listening and speaking is an indicator of better listening comprehension (Clark, 1989).
When
learning a foreign language, oneÕs grammar improves if one learns to listen to
the language prior to speaking it (Benson, & Heilt, 1978).
Both business practitioners and academics listed listening as one of the most important skills for an effective professional, yet only 1.5% of articles in business journals dealt with listening effectiveness (Smeltzer, 1993).
Individuals agree less on the ratings of good listeners, but agree more on the ratings of poor listeners (Cooper & Buchanan, 2003).
Listening accounts for approximately 1/3 of the characteristics perceivers use to evaluate communication competence in co-workers (Arnold, 1995).
Listening and listening-related abilities such as understanding, open-mindedness, and supportiveness constitute the single dimension upon which people make judgments about communication competence (Wienmann, 1977).
An individualÕs willingness to listen is positively correlated with communication skills and negatively related to receiver apprehension and sender based communication apprehension (Roberts & Vinson, 1998).
Listening
is an important component in how people judge communicative competence in the
workplace (Haas & Arnold, 1995). Further, individual performance in an
organization is found to be directly related to listening ability or perceived
listening effectiveness (Haas & Arnold, 1995)
In a spoken message, 55% of the meaning is translated non-verbally, 38% is indicated by the tone of voice, while only 7% is conveyed by the words used (Mehrabian, 1981).
Spoken words only account for 30 -35% of the meaning. The rest is transmitted through nonverbal communication that only can be detected through visual and auditory listening (Birdwhistell, 1970).
On average, viewers who just watched and listened to the evening news could only recall 17.2% of the content when not cued, and the cued group never exceeded 25% (Stauffer, Frost, & Rybolt, 1983).
In a linear one-way listening task, when presented with a list of words, people can remember, on average, 7 items (Miller, 1956).
When presented with a series of unrelated sentences and asked to remember the last word of each sentence, people can remember, on average, 2.805 items (Janusik, 2004).
In a dynamic, conversational listening task, where people must remember a series of related questions and respond to them, people can remember and respond to 2.946 items (Janusik, 2004).
The average person talks at a rate of about 125 – 175 words per minute, while we can listen at a rate of up to 450 words per minute (Carver, Johnson, & Friedman, 1970).
For statistics about hearing disorders, ear infections, and deafness, see the National Institute on Deafness and Other Disorders website at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/hearing.asp and http://deafness.about.com/cs/earbasics/a/demographics.htm.
Listening is tied to effective
leadership (Bechler & Johnson, 1995; Johnson & Bechler, 1998).
Leaders give good attention to the speaker by looking the speaker in the eye (Orick, 2002).
Leaders paraphrase the speaker to ensure understanding of the speakerÕs message (Orick, 2002).
Leaders are able to relate accurate messages to a third party, which shows that they listening to and remembered what the original speaker had said (Orick, 2002).
Leaders listen with an open mind by not becoming emotional or defensive (Orick, 2002).
Leaders can listen to a speaker and be respectful by not betraying the confidence of the speaker when asked to do so (Orick, 2002).
People listen through one of
four primary styles, including people oriented, time oriented, action oriented
and content oriented. Females are more likely to be people-oriented and
males are more likely to be action, content, or time oriented (Barker & Watson, 2000).
40 % of individuals choose to listen with two or more distinct styles (Weaver, Richendoller, & Kirtley, 1995).
OneÕs schema, agentic or communal, is a better predictor of listening style preference than oneÕs gender (Johnson, Weaver, Watson, & Barker, 2000).
Those with a high
people-orientation have a low apprehension for receiving information (Bodie
& Villaume, 2003).
LISTENING AND
SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION
People have a general tendency to prefer the help of
informal caregivers to formal helpers (Barker & Pistrang, 2002).
There is conflicting evidence of what "effective support" entails. Dunkel-Schetter and Wortman (1982) report that potential support providers believe that Òpatients should avoid thinking or talking about negative aspects of their situation and try to be as cheerful and optimistic as possibleÓ (p. 82).
Dakof and Taylor (1990) found, in general, victims of major life stressors having been exposed to (a) inappropriate responses (e.g., minimization, criticizing), (b) individuals who fail to express concern, empathy or affection, and (c) avoidance from one or more network members including medical professionals. Similarly, Perrine (1993) reports a study that suggests potential support providers have a greater tendency to want to solve problems than to engage in supportive listening behaviors. In other words, informal help providers may avoid listening to the distressed other that may lead the distressed other to feel worse rather than better.
The two most ÒhelpfulÓ listening behaviors when interacting with the bereaved
include 1) provide the opportunity to ventilate, and (2) presence (Òbeing
thereÓ) (Lehman, Ellard, and Wortman, 1986).
Supporters who are effective listeners provide more direct eye contact, are receptive to disclosures, and ask more follow-up questions (Miller, Berg, & Archer, 1983).
The most frequently reported listening barriers among students are listening primarily for details or facts; becoming distracted by noise; daydreaming or becoming preoccupied with something else while listening; thinking of another topic or detouring because of what the speaker has said; and lack of interest in the speakerÕs subject (Golen, 1990).
The
top three reported listening barriers for business students were identified as
1)Personal disinterest in the topic, 2)Personal and internal distractions, such
as hunger, headache, or preoccupation with something else, and
3)Inattentiveness such as daydreaming. The top three reported listening
barriers for business practitioners were identified as 1)Environmental
distractions such as phones ringing and other people talking, 2) Personal and
internal distractions, such as hunger, headache, or preoccupation with
something else, and 3)Rebuttal tendency – developing a counter argument
while the speaker is still speaking (Watson & Smeltzer, 1984).
Elementary students reported themselves as having better attention spans than all other ages and groups (Halone, Wolvin, & Coakley, 1997).
High school students rate themselves as better able to listen than elementary students, young adults, colleges students, adults, and the elderly (Halone, Wolvin, & Coakley, 1997).
30%
of the elderly admit to having poor or very poor hearing; however, only 45%
reported having the opportunity to listen to thoughtful communication (Halone,
Wolvin, & Coakley, 1997).
Listening has been identified as one of the top skills employers seek in entry-level employees as well as those being promoted (AICPA, 2005; Goby & Lewis, 2000; Hynes, & Bhatia, 1996; James, 1992; Maes, Weldy, & Icenogle, 1997; Waner, 1995; Willmington, 1992; Winsor, Curtis, & Stephens, 1997).
Consider the following rankings of whatÕs important in the interview process. The following numbers represent how private industry ranked the importance of the item, with 1 being the most important.
|
|
Curtis, Winsor,
& Stephens (1989) |
Maes, Weldy, &
Icenogle (1997) |
Winsor, Curtis,
& Stephens (1997) |
|
Oral Communication |
1 |
1 |
1 |
|
Listening |
2 |
1 |
3 |
|
Problem Solving |
|
2 |
|
|
Enthusiasm |
3 |
|
4 |
|
Self-Motivation |
|
3 |
|
|
Written
Communication |
4 |
|
2 |
|
Technical
Competence |
5 |
|
5 |
|
GPA/Academic
Performance |
11 |
13 |
16 |
As of the late
1990Õs, 64% of organizations provided some sort of listening training for their
employees because they find that employeesÕ listening skills are ineffective
for todayÕs work environment (What Employers Teach, 1997).
Even though most of
us spend the majority of our day listening, it is the communication activity
that receives the least instruction in school (Coakley & Wolvin, 1997).
Listening training is not required at most universities (Wacker & Hawkins,
1995). Students who are required to take a basic communication course spend
less than 7% of class and text time on listening (Janusik, 2002; Janusik &
Wolvin, 2002). If students arenÕt trained in listening, how do we expect them
to improve their listening?
Listening is critical to academic success. An entire freshman class
of over 400 students was given a listening test at the beginning of their first
semester. After their first year of studies, 49% of students scoring low on the
listening test were on academic probation, while only 4.42% of those scoring
high on the listening test were on academic probation. Conversely, 68.5% of
those scoring high on the listening test were considered Honors Students after
the first year, while only 4.17% of those scoring low attained the same success
(Conaway, 1982).
Students do not have a clear
concept of listening as an active process that they can control. Students find
it easier to criticize the speaker as opposed to the speakerÕs message (Imhof,
1998).
Effective listening is
associated with school success, but not with any major personality dimensions
(Bommelje, Houston, & Smither, 2003).
Students report greater
listening comprehension when they use the metacognitive strategies of asking
pre-questions, interest management, and elaboration strategies (Imhof, 2001).
Students self-report less
listening competencies after listening training than before. This could be
because students realize how much more there is to listening after training
(Ford, Wolvin, & Chung, 2000).
Listening and nonverbal communication training significantly influences multicultural sensitivity (Timm & Schroeder, 2000).
Physicians
interrupt 69% of patient interviews within 18 seconds of the patient beginning
to speak. As a result, in 77% of the interviews, the patientÕs true reason for
visiting was never elicited (Lee, 2000).
Patients are less
likely to sue practitioners with good bedside manners. In fact, 2/3rds of all
malpractice cases were tied to breakdowns in communication. Conversely, medical
practitioners with better communication skills were less likely to be involved
in malpractice cases (Hickson, et. al, 1992).
Patients are
dissatisfied with the way that physicians communicate, citing them as lacking
concerns and empathy (Korsch et. al, 1968; Lane, 1983; Schulman, 1978;
Zimmerman & Arnold, 1990).
Residents of a
nursing care facility were more satisfied with nursing assistants that had
specific listening training as opposed to those who werenÕt trained (Trahan
& Rockwell, 1999).
Health care
practitioners who use more patient-centered communication, including listening,
have patients who are more satisfied with their practitioners and their overall
medical care (Wanzer, Booth-Butterfield & Gruber, 2004).
Effective listening
is a significant predictor for patient satisfaction (Wanzer, Booth-Butterfield
& Gruber, 2004).
In
health care settings, the largest indicators of patient satisfaction with
physicianÕs communication skills are immediacy behaviors, empathy, and
listening (Wanzer, Booth-Butterfield, & Gruber, 2004)
Patients are more
satisfied with oncologists who use shared decision-making strategies, including
active listening, when deciding treatment (Brown, et. al, 2002).
Physicians who use a
biopsychosocial
approach with patients, including expressing empathy, involving patients in
decision-making, asking open-ended questions, and listening attentively, take
no more time per average office visit and produce increased
patient satisfaction, which leads to better and
more responsible decisions, and increases the patientÕs willingness to carry
out the prescribed treatment (du Pre, 2001).
The
most important communication skill in the doctor-nurse relationship, as well as
the nurse-patient relationship, is listening (Worobey & Cummings, 1984).
Further, nurses identify listening as highly important when dealing with
doctors, patients, and hospital administrators (Worobey & Cummings, 1984).
Active
listening on the part of both the physician and the patient increased compliance
and the perception of a supportive atmosphere (Hausman, 2001).
Naturopathic
patients rated their physician significantly higher in empathy than patients of
conventional physicians (Arnold & Shirreffs, 1998).
LISTENING AND
SPIRITUALITY/RELIGION
The earliest Jesuit missionaries
made it a point to enter new locations and not speak for approximately 6
months. Instead, they listened. They recognized the importance of understanding
where the other was before attempting to educate.
The metaphor of the word of the Lord also expresses what discernment essentially is. ÒThe word of the Lord came to me, saying. . .Ó is a favored image among many of the biblical prophets. The word of God is creative, energetic, enlightening, fruitful, lifegiving (Is 55:10–11). The prophetÕs gift and task is to have a discipleÕs ear (Is 50:4–5) to receive the word of the Lord in whatever context God chooses to speak; to distinguish between the genuine word of God and what cleverly but deceitfully masquerades as GodÕs word; to read the circumstances of everyday life through the lens of GodÕs word; to act upon the word and to recall the people to fidelity to it. To be unable or unwilling to receive the word of the Lord is to deprive oneself of the source of life, goodness, wisdom, and creativity. Discernment, then, is the ability both to allow oneÕs own life to be formed and guided by the word of God, and to play an appropriate part in ensuring that this word also guides the life and shapes the structures of community (Lonsdale, 1992, 51).
ÒSpiritual direction is a ministry of care and
support for another that focuses on the primacy of relationship with GodÓ
(Barry and Connolly, 1982). Originating in the first century predominately in
the domain of priests, it evolved to its present form in the 15th
Century as an ascetic discipline practiced by men and women in the Roman
Catholic churchÉ..Spiritual direction is now identified as a valid ministry for
laity as well as religious leaders and is a popular practice with Protestants.
The practice has also spread to the Jewish and Muslim faithsÓ (Tisdale, 2003).
A key component of the ministry is listening.
Christian tradition emphasizes listening over transmitting.
The first calling of disciples of Jesus Christ is to be good listeners, not
speakers. É.Practically speaking, Christian
educators should be quick to listen because without practicing listening well,
they cannot love God or others - including students, parents, colleagues,
constituencies, and communitiesÓ (Shultze, 4004).
ÒThe effective group leader or counselor will be a person
who learns how to listen to other people. By studying and employing these
listening skills, church leaders will be able to engage others more
compassionately, allowing them to feel that their needs are being metÓ (Savage, 1996).
ÒAfter almost a decade of facilitating dialogue groups, I realized that the art of listening was the main skill that was missing for most participants. From that very real need, I developed The Listening Center in California five years ago, at a time in my life when the connection between listening and the circle of life became clear to me in all it sacrednessÓ (Lindahl, 2002).
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